Lagerpeton

By Tas 

Etymology: Rabbit Reptile 

First Described By: Romer, 1971 

Classification: Biota, Archaea, Proteoarchaeota, Asgardarchaeota, Eukaryota, Neokaryota, Scotokaryota Opimoda, Podiata, Amorphea, Obazoa, Opisthokonta, Holozoa, Filozoa, Choanozoa, Animalia, Eumetazoa, Parahoxozoa, Bilateria, Nephrozoa, Deuterostomia, Chordata, Olfactores, Vertebrata, Craniata, Gnathostomata, Eugnathostomata, Osteichthyes, Sarcopterygii, Rhipidistia, Tetrapodomorpha, Eotetrapodiformes, Elpistostegalia, Stegocephalia, Tetrapoda, Reptiliomorpha, Amniota, Sauropsida, Eureptilia, Romeriida, Diapsida, Neodiapsida, Sauria, Archosauromorpha, Crocopoda, Archosauriformes, Eucrocopoda, Crurotarsi, Archosauria, Avemetarsalia, Ornithodira, Dinosauromorpha, Lagerpetidae 

Referred Species: L. chanarensis 

Status: Extinct 

Time and Place: About 235 to 234 million years ago, in the Carnian of the Late Triassic 

Lagerpeton is known from the Chañares Formation in La Rioja, Argentina 

Physical Description: Lagerpeton was named as the Rabbit Reptile, and for good reason – in a lot of ways, it represents a decent attempt by reptiles in trying to do the whole hoppy-hop thing. You might think that it resembles Scleromochlus in that way, and you’d be right! Scleromochlus and Lagerpeton are close cousins, but one is on the line towards Pterosaurs – Scleromochlus – and the other is on the line towards dinosaurs – Lagerpeton. So, hopping around was an early feature that all Ornithodirans (Dinosaurs, Pterosaurs, and those closest to them) shared. Lagerpeton itself was about 70 centimeters in length, with most of that length represented as tail; it was slender and lithe, built for moving quickly through its environment. It had a small head, a long neck, and a thin body. While it had long legs, it also had somewhat long arms, and while it may have been able to walk on all fours it also would have been able to walk on two legs alone. It was digitigrade, walking only on its toes, making it an even faster animal. Its back was angled to help it in hopping and running through its environment, and its small pelvis gave it more force during hip extension while jumping. In addition to all of this, it basically only really rested its weight on two toes – giving it even more hopping ability! As a small early bird-line reptile, it would have been covered in primitive feathers all over its body (protofeathers), though what form they took we do not know. 

By Scott Reid 

Diet: As an early dinosaur relative, it’s more likely than not that Lagerpeton was an omnivore, though this is uncertain as its head and teeth are not known at this time. 

Behavior: Lagerpeton would have been a very skittish animal, being so small in an environment of so many kinds of animals – and as such, that hopping and fast movement ability would have aided it in escaping and moving around its environment, avoiding predators and reaching new sources of food (and, potentially, chasing after smaller food itself). Lagerpeton may have also been somewhat social, moving in small groups, potentially families, to escape the predators and chase after prey together, given its common nature in its environment. As an archosaur, Lagerpeton was more likely than not to take care of its young, though we don’t know how or to what extent. The feathers it had would have been primarily thermoregulatory, and as such, they would have helped it maintain a constant body temperature – making it a very active, lithe animal. 

By José Carlos Cortés 

Ecosystem: Lagerpeton lived in the Chañares environment, a diverse and fascinating environment coming right after the transition from the Middle to Late Triassic epochs. Given that the first true dinosaurs are probably from the start of the Late Triassic, this makes it a hotbed for understanding the environments that the earliest dinosaurs evolved in. Since Lagerpeton is a close dinosaur relative, this helps contextualize its place within its evolutionary history. This environment was a floodplain, filled with lakes that would regularly flood depending on the season. There were many seed ferns, ferns, conifers, and horsetails. Many different animals lived here with Lagerpeton, including other Dinosauromorphs like the Silesaurid Lewisuchus/Pseudolagosuchus and the Dinosauriform Marasuchus/Lagosuchus. There were crocodilian relatives as well, such as the early suchian Gracilisuchus and the Rauisuchid Luperosuchus. There were also quite a few Proterochampsids, such as Tarjadia, Tropidosuchus, Gualosuchus, and Chanaresuchus. Synapsids also put in a good show, with the Dicynodonts Jachaleria and Dinodontosaurus, as well as Cynodonts like Probainognathus and Chiniquodon, and the herbivorous Massetognathus. Luperosuchus would have definitely been a predator Lagerpeton would have wanted to get away from – fast! 

By Ripley Cook 

Other: Lagerpeton is one of our earliest derived Dinosauromorphs, showing some of the earliest distinctions the dinosaur-line had compared to other archosaurs. Lagerpeton was already digitigrade – an important feature of Dinosaurs – as shown by its tracks, called Prorotodactylus. These tracks also showcase that dinosaur relatives were around as early as the Early Triassic – and that their evolution, and the rapid diversification of archosauromorphs in general, was a direct result of the end-Permian extinction. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources Under the Cut  

Larosterna inca

By Cristóbal Alvarado Minic, CC BY 2.0

Etymology: Gull-Tern 

First Described By: Blyth, 1852 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Neoaves, Aequorlitornithes, Charadriiformes, Lari, Larida, Laridae, Sterninae 

Status: Extant, Near Threatened 

Time and Place: Since 126,000 years ago, from the Chibanian of the Pleistocene through the Holocene of the Quaternary 

Inca Terns are known from the Pacific Coast of South America 

Physical Description: Inca Terns are extremely visually distinctive birds, thanks to their bright red beaks and weird villainous-moustache feather plumes. These birds range in size between 39 and 42 centimeters in length, and are grey over most of their bodies. Their tails are distinctively black, and the wings are grey before ending in a distinctive white band and then continuing to black tips when folded. Their beaks are bright red, large, and slightly curved. They have a small yellow patch of feathers under their eyes, and a very long, curly white feather ribbon going from right under their eye down their neck. Their legs are short and dark red as well. The juveniles tend to be more brown all over before becoming darker with age. 

Diet: Inca Terns feed primarily on small fish, plankton, and scraps. 

By Cristóbal Alvarado Minic, CC BY 2.0

Behavior: These terns will stick to fishing boats in large flocks, hovering around them in order to opportunistically feed off of food brought up by fishing activity. They often will detect large sea mammals and fly away – rapidly – to avoid them, and also to grab the food that is welled up by them. They can often live in flocks of up to 5000 members. They forage by plunging in the water and diving for food, as well as dipping a little on the surface. They do not migrate, and are extremely loud at their colonies – making a variety of cackling and mewing sounds. 

By Cristóbal Alvarado Minic, CC BY 2.0

Inca Terns breed throughout the year, with nests and eggs found in both the summer and the winter. Courting and mating birds are also found all over their range throughout the year. They build nests in fissures, burrows, and caves, as well as underneath rocks and boulders on the shore. They often build nests in mixed-species flocks with petrels and cormorants, though they will hide the nests more when vultures and other predators are present. They lay about two eggs which are incubated for four weeks, they hatch as small fluffy grey blobs that fledge in four more weeks. They are dependent on the parents for another month. The parents are monogamous, with both helping to take care of the young; interestingly enough, their fascinating plumage isn’t for sexual display, but rather to indicate the health of the individuals. In fact, the length of the villain moustache is the clearest indicator of individual health. These birds can live up to 25 years, though it is usually significantly less in the wild. 

By Josue Hermoza, CC BY-SA 4.0

Ecosystem: Inca Terns primarily live in rocky coasts or where sandy beaches are surrounded by cliffs, since those are their primary nesting habitats. They are fed upon by cats, rats, and sea lions, as well as some raptors like falcons, and large seabirds do feed on the nests. 

By Olaf Oliviero Riemer, CC BY-SA 3.0

Other: Inca Terns are considered near threatened, primarily due to fluctuations in food from El Niño – they have dramatic population drops in response, but then rebound quickly when it stops, indicating potential emigration rather than starvation. There is some hunting by humans, but not enough to cause these population drops. There are breeding programs present, especially in zoos, where Inca Terns do quite well. Inca Terns have actually been around since the last Ice Age, where their range was much more northward, indicating they have shifted their habitat with the warming of the planet. 

Sources Under the Cut 

Myrtis fanny

By Michael Woodruff, CC BY-SA 2.0

Etymology: Named for the Boeotian poet, muse, and teacher

First Described By: Reichenbach, 1854 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Neoaves, Strisores, Daedalornithes, Apodiformes, Trochilidae, Trochilinae 

Status: Extant, Least Concern 

Time and Place: Since 10,000 years ago, in the Holocene of the Quaternary 

Purple-Collared Woodstars are known from the western side of the Andes mountains (in lowland elevations) in the Northern half of South America 

Physical Description: Purple-Collared Woodstars, being hummingbirds, are extremely small dinosaurs, about 7.5 and 8 centimeters long and a little more than 2 grams in weight. Both sexes have green backs, but beyond that they look almost nothing alike. Males have long, curved bills, with blue throats and a violet stripe underneath. The rest of the belly is white. Their wings have black tips and their tails are V-shaped. The females, on the other hand, have less curve to their beaks; their bellies and under-throat are orange, and they have orange tips to their wings. They also have more rounded tails. Juveniles look like the females until they reach sexual maturity, where they either stay like that or develop the adult male plumage.  

Diet: These hummingbirds feed upon nectar from a variety of flowers (including cacti flowers), as well as some insects. 

By Hector Ceballos-Lascurain

Behavior: Purple-Collared Woodstars follow consistent routes back and forth from flower to flower, consistent in where they go and constantly on the move. Like other hummingbirds, they move their wings extremely fast in order to hover at the flower and get nectar with their long curved bills. They do rest occasionally, to bathe and sleep, but they are on the move more often than not. That being said, they do not seem to migrate, but do go up and down the altitude levels of the mountains following the blooming of the flowers. Males will fly in large semi-circles around the females, making twittering sounds at the top of the arc and making more trumpet sounds at the end of the arc. They also make chittering calls to one another while moving around, and chase flies while making different tweets. They breed from March through June closer to the equator, and more south they breed from June through October. They make nests out of plants and spider webs, placed in thin branches a few meters off of the ground. These hummingbirds lay two eggs which are incubated by the females for two weeks. The chicks are black and grey, and fledge after three weeks. They begin breeding at two years of age. 

By Arthur Grosset

Ecosystem: Purple-Collared Woodstars live in coastal scrub and the open woodland from the lowlands up to 3000 meters high in the Andes mountains, and they do not venture into more rainforested territory. They prefer the drier ecosystems for their right types of flowers. 

Other: Purple-Collared Woodstars, thankfully, are not threatened with extinction and are very common in their range; they are also very adaptable to human-created habitats. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources Under the Cut 

Nyctibius

Common Potoo by Gmmv1980, CC BY-SA 4.0

Etymology: Night Feeder 

First Described By: Vieillot, 1816 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Neoaves, Strisores, Caprimulgiformes, Nyctibiidae 

Referred Species: N. bracteatus (Rufous Potoo), N. grandis (Great Potoo), N. aethereus (Long-Tailed Potoo), N. leucopterus (White-Winged Potoo), N. maculosus (Andean Potoo), N. griseus (Common Potoo), N. jamaicensis (Northern Potoo) 

Status: Extant, Least Concern 

Time and Place: From 12,000 years ago through today, in the Holocene of the Quaternary 

Potoos are known from Central and South America, around the Equator 

Physical Description: Potoos are some of the weirdest birds alive today, looking about as ridiculous and muppet-like as any bird can really look. I’m honestly not sure if there is another living dinosaur that looks more like a muppet – and, of course, we don’t know if any extinct dinosaurs could have taken home the gold. The only probable and possible contender is the Frogmouth, which may just be the slightest amount more muppet-like, but it’s a close contest. They have distinctive faces, that are more feather than underlying tissue – their beaks stick out a bit, with a small hooked beak at the end. They have a large mouth, covered in fluff. Their eyes have a general sunken in appearance, which makes them look very large compared to the rest of the face. Their heads are very large compared to the rest of their bodies, and they have long bodies with short wings and long, fluffy tails. So, when they stand up, they look… well, they look like a stump, or a log standing up. They can then make themselves skinnier, which makes their eyes stand out compared to the rest of their bodies… which gives them the general appearance of a completely ridiculous animal. They can range in size from 21 to 58 centimeters, and range in color from reddish brown, to more orange brown, to more grey in color. This genus is not sexually dimorphic, though some species have variants in color. 

By Charles J. Sharp, CC BY-SA 4.0

Diet: Potoos eat a lot of insects – from beetles to moths, to mantids, ants, termites, cicadas, leafhoppers, and grasshoppers. 

Rufous Potoo by Eric Gropp, CC BY 2.0

Behavior: Potoos will hunt by standing extremely still on their perches – often, again, making themselves to look like a continuous log – and waiting for food to appear. Since they’re nocturnal, they are easily missed by the insects, as they blend into the background around them. Then, when they spot the prey, they launch forward, jutting forward to catch the insects and swallow them. Some species are more clumsy in this endeavor than others, though some are able to make leaps over several meters in order to grab the food they desire. They then return to the same post, returning to their previous log-like stillness as they wait for more food to appear. They’ll look around for the food by turning their heads rapidly from side to side – weirdly like owls, though they are not closely related to them at all. These perches can be only one meter off the ground, or up to 19 meters, depending on the forest around the potoo in question. 

Common Potoo by the American Bird Conservancy

Potoos aren’t the most musical or birds, but they are loud – they make harsh, guttural “bwa-bwa-bwa” calls, similar to laughing or wailing. They can also make drawn out, descending rasps, that are… somewhat more musical at least. They tend to make their sounds mostly at dusk, right before dawn, and also on moonlit nights – so when it is Dark, but not too dark. These sounds, of course, do vary from species to species. There are some courtship calls, including descended calls made by females during the mating ritual, but they aren’t a major feature of these events. So, instead of picturing the great wolves as your moonlight singers, remember: the Potoos can and WILL be making these weird urts, laughs, and whistles, every time the moon is full and out in the sky. Potoos do not migrate, but they do appear to move sporadically in response to season changes and mating territory disturbances. 

Long-Tailed Potoo by Lee R. Berger, CC BY-SA 3.0

As for nesting, Potoos are not… fantastic at the prospect, because of their tiny legs and weird, weird beaks. This makes them not great at both sitting on the nest and feeding the chicks. Still, they do it anyway, and clearly well enough since they aren’t endangered with extinction. They are monogamous, with both parents working together to incubate the egg and raise the chick, and they don’t build a nest – instead, the egg is laid in a depression on the branch, usually on top of a rotting stump. The male incubates the egg during the day, while the female will do so with the male at night. The chick is hidden almost entirely through camouflage. They hatch about a month later, and then stay in the nest for two more months, being protected by the parents and fed by them as well. They look… like clumps of fungus. Hiding underneath the log of their parents. The parents will defend themselves and the nest with mobbing behavior, crowding a predator and dive bombing it, and also calling at it loudly. In short, these birds are a Giant, Giant mess of Chaos. 

White-Winged Potoo by Mark Sutton

Ecosystem: Potoos are known primarily from rainforests, and can be found at any level of the forest – some Potoos are known from the understorey, some from the middle, and some from the canopy – it really depends. They’re also found in very swampy forests, depending on the species and the habitats in question. They tend to stick to where there are easily accessible sources of water, regardless, especially rivers and lakes in the jungle. They stick to the deep interior of the forest, not venturing to forest edges much unless driven to by necessity. Some species are also found in mountain forest habitats. They have few natural predators after reaching adult size, though the young are hunted upon by monkeys and falcons. 

Andean Potoo by Isirvio, CC BY-SA 2.0

Other: Potoos are a part of the Stirsorians, a group of WEIRD BIRDS that are adapted for a variety of extremely unique ecological niches, usually depending on their flight style. Close relatives of the Potoo include the Frogmouth, Nightjars, Oilbirds, Swifts, and Hummingbirds, among others. Potoos are highly adapted for their nocturnal lifestyle, adapted to blend in with their forested surroundings above all else. None are threatened with extinction at this time, though of course some species are rarer than others, and all are vulnerable to climate change and extensive habitat destruction in the American Rainforests. They are also quite uncommon birds, which of course affects their vulnerability as well.

Northern Potoo by Dominic Sherony, CC BY-SA 2.0

Species Differences: The different species of Potoo vary mainly on size, coloration, habitat, and location. The Rufous Potoo is one of the most notable, being very red in color and also the smallest species; it is known from northern Amazonia, in the middle and lower storeys of the forest. Great Potoos are the heaviest species, and greyish to yellowish brown; they are found in the canopy of Amazonia. The Long-Tailed Potoo is the longest species, and is a darker brown; it is found in lowland forest in Amazonia. The White-Winged Potoo has – you guessed it – white wings, and is small in size; it is found in the canopy of lowland Amazonia rainforest. The Andean Potoo is very dark and Extremely Muppety, and is found in mountain forests in the Andes Mountains. The Common Potoo is the most middle brown of them all and very middle in size, so the Averagest Potoo of them All; it is found in wet open woodland, usually at forest edges and the canopy, throughout Northern South America. The Northern Potoo is similar to the Common Potoo but usually larger, and it is also found in forest edges, but in Central America and the Carribean. 

~ By Meig Dickson 

Sources Under the Cut 

Pelagornis

By Ripley Cook

Etymology: Sea Bird

First Described By: Lartet, 1857 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Pelagornithidae  

Referred Species: P. chilensis, P. longirostris, P. mauretanicus, P. miocaenus, P. orri, P. sandersi, P. stirtoni, P. tenuirostris, P. wetmorei 

Status: Extinct

Time and Place: Between 30 and 2.5 million years ago, from the Rupelian of the Oligocene through the beginning of the Pleistocene (in the Gelasian age) 

Pelagornis, being an extremely common seabird, is known from nearly everywhere around the world, usually associated with the coast. 

Physical Description: Despite the incredibly generic name, Pelagornis was quite an interesting bird. Like other pseudotooth birds, both its upper and lower beak bore toothlike spikes, in an alternating small/big/small/big pattern. Its beak was robust and fairly long compared to the back of the skull. These pseudoteeth appear to have grown in relatively late in Pelagornis’s growth, implying the keratin covering the beak may not have been fully hardened until close to adulthood. Interestingly enough, fossil evidence indicates that Pelagornis probably held its head upright at a vertical angle. 

By José Carlos Cortés

Pelagornis was fucking huge, m’kay. P. sandersi has an estimated wingspan between 6.1 and 7.4 meters! This makes Pelagornis the bird with the largest wingspan (but not the heaviest flying bird – that record belongs to Argentavis). Its wings were even more proportionally long and narrow than those of the largest flying birds alive today, the albatrosses. In comparison, its body was fairly small. There were, of course, some species of Pelagornis that were smaller than this, reaching only 4 meters long in terms of wingspan. Still, this large wingspan size is really only characteristic of these birds in flight – compressed, they would have looked much smaller, especially given that they were very light weight. They had stout legs and shorter tails, which indicates that they weren’t very good walkers, and spent most of their time in the air or sitting on the land. 

By Jack Wood

Diet: Probably fish. The pseudoteeth are likely an adaptation to grab and hold onto large fish. Similar toothlike serrations are seen, albeit much less exaggerated, in modern mergansers, which also eat fish. In addition, the vertical position of the head would have allowed Pelagornis to skim-feed, grabbing fish and other aquatic organisms from the top layer of the ocean and scooping them into their mouths. Thus, the fake-teeth would have allowed Pelagornis to grab onto fish better than non-toothed skim feeding birds. It may have also used these sharp fake teeth in order to grab onto the slipperiest fish and cephalopods – rather than harder shelly animals. 

By Scott Reid

Behavior: As with modern seabirds, Pelagornis likely spent most of its time out at sea. Gliding on oceanic thermals would have helped to support its huge body in the air without wasting energy just to stay aloft – which was important, since it wasn’t very good at flapping its wings and would have had trouble staying aloft long enough to get food if it had to flap too frequently. Think an albatross, but a giant, evil albatross. Landing and taking off would have been more awkward, though. It probably needed to take advantage of headwinds, drops in elevation and/or air gusts to get into the air at all. Albatrosses also kinda have this problem, but nowhere near to the same extent. The late appearance of the pseudoteeth implies that Pelagornis may have fed its young back on land like many modern seabirds before they could feed themselves out at sea. As such, they would have sought out good nesting sites, which may correspond to where fossils of Pelagornis are found – indicating that their spread around the world was greater than that we know of. Since it was a sea bird, it probably would have been very social, living in large colonies – and it would have cared for its young in similar social groups. In fact, it seems more likely than not that it would have laid its nests on cliffs and in rocky areas and plateaus, where being able to take off would have been easier than flatter, sandier beaches. Whether or not these animals were as noisy as modern seabirds is really another question altogether. 

By Jack Wood

Interestingly enough, Pelagornis had a salt gland in the eye that would have allowed it to excrete excess salt, which was an extremely helpful trait when Pelagornis ate almost entirely seafood. That seafood diet didn’t meant it wasn’t a danger, however – today, seabirds will venture away from the coasts in order to scavenge food on the beach, and they are certainly defensive of their nests, young, and territory. Also fascinatingly, it had a very very very long skull – with all of those pseudoteeth packed in – which had similar shapes and organization as to the extinct really toothed birds of the Mesozoic. This implies that there was a certain amount of evolutionary regression in Pelagornis, allowing it to better support its teeth and chomping ability than it would otherwise. There is also an interesting furrow in the skull, which allowed it to be better support the head and possibly to better grab prey in the ocean. 

By Scott Reid

Ecosystem: Pelagornis lived around coastlines worldwide. Because of this, it is difficult to pinpoint with certainty the types of animals it lived with. In fact, it was so long-lived and widespread it is more likely than not that Pelgaornis interacted with any ocean-going creature or animal found along the coast. It doesn’t seem to have a preference in the fossil record between rocky coasts or beaches, though it did seem to stay in at least somewhat warmer ecosystems and where cliffs would have been present for easier take-offs (and it is reasonable to suppose that cliff areas would have been its preferred place for nesting). Some notable animals it would have interacted with include extinct penguins, cetaceans, the famed giant shark Megalodon and… humans. Yup, Pelagornis is known from locations where early members of genus Homo ventured to. So, if you can imagine being afraid of a giant bird with fake teeth a little too well, that would be the instincts of your ancestors talking. 

By Scott Reid

Other: Pelagornis is a fun time, classification wise, for multiple reasons: one, a whole bunch of different types of Pseudotoothed birds are actually, apparently, species of Pelagornis; and two, we don’t really know what Pseudotoothed birds really are. So, let’s break this down into those two parts. What’s going on with the species? Well, in the 2010s, a lot of research has been made that shows a bunch of the Neogene Pseudotoothed birds that we’ve counted as different genera are actually… just… part of Pelagornis. Why Wikipedia has not chosen to update their information as to this effect is beyond me, but the fact remains is that a lot of Pseudotoothed birds are just different shades of Pelagornis, primarily due to the fact that they really… aren’t different. In fact, a lot of the differences were just based on time and place, and the fact that Pseudotoothed birds weren’t really well known at all. The loss of Osteodontornis is a bit of a bummer, but there aren’t any major differences between this genus and Pelagornis, so it’s gone. We’ve also lost Pseudodontornis, you know, the name that actually means “fake toothed bird”, unlike the crappy name for Pelagornis, which just means Sea Bird. Like, come on people. Why are we here. Just to suffer. We’ve also lost Palaeochenoides, Neodontornis, and Tympanonesiotes. Hence the extreme amount of art in this article – the last time I covered Pseudotoothed birds, these were separate. So we have an abundance of terrifying tooth art. 

By José Carlos Cortés

Finally – what the heck are Pseudotoothed birds? We don’t know. We really don’t know where they go. Are they related to the sea birds we have today (the Aequorlitornithes)? Are they related to ducks? Are they something else entirely? We have no idea, because, frankly, they seem to just appear in the fossil record without any sort of origin whatsoever. Like magic. Suddenly, toothed birds were back like the asteroid never hit. Honestly if I were to hazard a guess, based on the fossil characteristics, they’re probably none of the above – but an early branching group of Neognathous (aka, all birds that aren’t ratites and their cousins) birds that evolved from a non-easily fossilized ancestor. Whether that ancestor had weak bones or just lived in places where fossils don’t happen is a different question entirely, but either way, so far we have nothing. They just appear, in the Paleocene, out of nowhere. And, eventually, Pelagornis also disappeared. 

By Jack Wood

Why did Pelagornis, the latest surviving species disappear? The most likely answer is climate change. The onset of the ice age would have caused extreme changes to the water patterns, currents, and air flow. Since Pelagornis didn’t flap its wings much, and relied almost entirely on soaring and thermals, it probably would have been greatly affected by changes in these weather patterns. So, changes in the ocean and the air by the ice age would have decreased its ability to reach food, and then the dramatic changes in its home climate would have been a further death knell. Interestingly enough, they only began to become uncommon right before they became extinct – indicating that Pelagornis really was finished off by this change in climate. Which is sad, because that’s right around when humans were becoming more of a thing, and it would have been nice to see one of these things in life. Except it wouldn’t have been. Because they’re terrifying. But I laugh in the face of danger. I think. I dunno I just think they’re neat. 

By Scott Reid

Species Differences: The different species of Pelagornis differ primarily due to location and time, though there are some differences in shape and size – those fossils that were once assigned to Tympanonesiotes, for example, were on average smaller than other members of this genus. The largest known species was decidedly Pelagornis sandersi, though the best known species is Pelagornis chilensis. For now, however, Pelagornis is kind of a mess, since so much research is needed on this species complex to make sure things are where they belong and one genus is enough, so species differences are difficult to parse out until more research has been published on the subject. Just know that there were a lot of Pelagornis – and they came in all kinds of different shapes and sizes all over the place. 

~ By Meig Dickson and Henry Thomas 

Sources Under the Cut 

Saturnalia tupiniquim

By Ripley Cook

Etymology: Named for the Roman festival of Saturn 

First Described By: Langer et al., 1999 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Sauropodomorpha, Saturnaliidae 

Status: Extinct 

Time and Place: 233.23 million years ago, in the Carnian of the Late Triassic 

Saturnalia is known from the Alemoa Member of the Santa Maria Formation – it is also possibly known from Zimbabwe, but this assignment is dubious 

Physical Description: Saturnalia was probably a very early Prosauropod – aka, those dinosaurs that were more closely related to the large and famous Sauropods than any other kind of dinosaur (the official name for these dinosaurs being Sauropodomorphs). As an early Prosauropod, then, Saturnalia didn’t look very much different from other early dinosaurs – it was small, fluffy, squat, and bipedal. It was so much like other dinosaurs that it is often classified outside of Sauropodomorpha proper – and that continues to be a source of debate for these dinosaurs. In fact, according to some, it’s an early theropod!! More work is clearly needed, but regardless, Saturnalia was about 1.5 meters long and no more than a meter tall. It had a somewhat long neck – but no longer than other early dinosaurs, certainly not proper sauropodomorph length – and a small head. It had short arms, somewhat short legs, and a short tail as well. It was very slight, and had a skull like that of prosauropods, though its legs were more like those of theropods. Overall – a very average looking early dinosaur, and certainly very similar to the early Sauropodomorphs and the early Theropods of the time. 

Diet: Saturnalia probably was an omnivore, feeding on both meat and plant food, at low levels of vegetation and mainly focusing on very small animals. Though it is also possible that it was a carnivore. 

By Rex Chen

Behavior: Saturnalia, regardless of its affinity, would have been a very skittish animal – avoiding predators in its environment at all costs, and running about on its tip-toes in order to avoid danger. It was probably at least somewhat social, given multiple skeletons have been found of it, though of course we cannot be certain of such. Regardless, it would have spent a large portion of its day foraging on food, looking around for leaves to strip from branches and small animals to catch in its mouth. It would have probably taken care of its young, and may have formed family groups to do so. The long-ish neck of Saturnalia would have allowed it to reach deeper into the plantlife in order to grab food out of reach. 

Ecosystem: The Santa Maria Formation is a hotspot of early dinosaur diversity, showcasing especially the initial explosion of Sauropodomorphs after dinosaurs first appeared. This was an extensive floodplain environment, filled with seed ferns and conifers, giving Saturnalia good amounts of cover to protect it from other creatures. This was important, because Saturnalia was far from alone in its home. Here, there were predatory dinosaurs, such as the Herrerasaurid Staurikosaurus and the prosauropod Buriolestes; mystery dinosaurs like Nhandumirim; other early prosauropods like Pampadromaeus and Bagualosaurus; the Lagerpetid Ixalerpeton; the weird Aphanosaur Spondylosoma; large Loricatan predators like Rauisuchus, Procerosuchus, Prestosuchus, Decuriasuchus, and Dagasuchus; large herbivorous Aetosaurs such as Aetobarbakinoides, Aetosauroides, and Polesinesuchus; rhynchosaurs like Hyperodapedon and Brasinorhynchus; mystery reptiles like Barberenasuchus; Proterochampsids like Cerritosaurus, Chanaresuchus, Proterochampsa, and Rhadinosuchus; Erpetosuchids like Pagosvnator; and plenty of synapsids such s Chiniquodon, Candelariodon, Exaeretodon, Protuberum, Santacruzodon, and Trucidocynodon. In short – an extremely diverse and flourishing environment, showcasing the true weirdness that was the Triassic period. 

By Nobu Tamura, CC BY-SA 4.0

Other: Was Saturnalia a theropod or a prosauropod? The jury is still out. Its back half looks much like that of a theropod, but its head? Similar to prosauropods. The most recent analysis has it as a sauropodomorph – probably – but people still debate, and arguments continue to go on. It is often considered a part of a bigger group of dinosaurs including animals like Guaibasaurus, but some of these animals in recent studies have been found as prosauropods, and some as theropods, breaking up the group. So, the scientists continue to debate, and the exact nature of Saturnalia remains a mystery – but, for now, we can probably still call it a Sauropodomorph, along with Pampadromaeus. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources Under the Cut 

Pisanosaurus mertii

By José Carlos Cortés

Etymology: Pisano’s Reptile 

First Described By: Casamiquela, 1967 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Silesauridae? 

Status: Extinct 

Time and Place: 231.4 million years ago, in the Carnian of the Late Triassic 

Pisanosaurus is known from the Cancha de Bochas Member of the Ischigualasto Formation in San Juan Argentina. 

Physical Description: If a Silesaurid – as is currently thought – Pisanosaurus would have been a small, slender, and quadrupedal animal, only about 1 meter in length. It had an open hip socket, like dinosaurs, which may point to a very interesting phylogenetic position (see the Other section below). It had very elongated bones in its hands, and its upper hips were weirdly wide as well. Beyond that, we don’t know much about with Pisanosaurus may have looked like. It seems logical to suppose it would have had a small head with a little beak in the front of the mouth – as both Silesaurids and early Ornithischians (the other hypothesis for the type of creature Pisanosaurus was) have such structures for snipping off plant material. Given its small size, Pisanosaurus – like all other early members of the group of reptiles that would later include birds (Avemetatarsalia) – would have been covered with fluff all over its body. If Pisanosaurus was an early Ornithischian and not a Silesaurid, it would have been bipedal, with short forelimbs not used in locomotion. 

Diet: Either way, Pisanosaurus would have been an herbivore, eating low-lying vegetation in its densely forested home. 

Behavior: As a small, lithe herbivore, Pisanosaurus would have been very skittish – running at the slightest sign of danger, making sure to avoid the many large predators it shared a home with. It probably wouldn’t have been very social – given it wasn’t very abundant! – but it may have foraged in large groups of mixed herbivores, sticking together to rely on each other in the event of danger. This reliance would have allowed bulkier herbivores to notice and react to danger quicker (since the small lithe ones like Pisanosaurus would have already been running away) – and the smaller ones would have had large, bulky roadblocks to stop the approach of predators. As an early dinosaur, it most likely partook in some sort of care of its young, though of course, we do not know what. 

(As an Ornithischian) by Michael B. H., CC BY-SA 3.0

Ecosystem: The Ischigualasto Environment is one of the more famous ecosystems of the Late Triassic – due to it being a hotbed of early dinosaur discoveries, including some of the earliest potential members of the group. In fact, it is such an important environment that today the rock formation is considered a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was an extensive series of rivers channeling through a large floodplain, erring towards the wetter side of the scale – mud was the name of the game, and there was a wide variety of plant material present, including a dense conifer forest, ferns, and horsetails. It did experience seasonal rainfall, with possible times of extremely heavy precipitation. Occasionally, everything would be buried in volcanic ash – leading to the beautiful preservation of the environment. 

Pisanosaurus wasn’t the only Silesaurid here – there was also Ignotosaurus, the slender and small Silesaurid. There were also famous early dinosaurs such as Eoraptor – the small, bipedal early Saurischian(?), Herrerasaurus and Sanjuansaurus, the large taxonomically-confusing predators, and Chromogisaurus, one of the earliest known “prosauropods.” Of course, this being the Triassic, dinosaurs were only a small part of the ecosystem. The Ischigualasto – like most places of the time period – was absolutely lousy with other archosauriformes! Non-Dinosaurian Archosauriformes were extensively diverse at this time, making up a large chunk of the “large charismatic land animal” roles. There was Aetosauroides, an Aetosaur (sort of like a cross between an ankylosaur, an ant-eater, and a crocodile), Proterochampsa and Pseudochampsa – crocodilian-like creatures that were actually equally closely related to crocodiles and dinosaurs – both frequented the rivers of the environment. Saurosuchus, a large and bulky stem-croc, would have been a huge pain in the rear for herbivores like Pisanosaurus. Sillosuchus was a weird stem-croc, bipedal and strangely dinosaur like – with even, potentially, a beak – but utterly scaly, and bulky in stature! There was also Venaticosuchus, an Ornithosuchid (one of the most basal groups of stem-crocs), and Trialestes – a fast moving stem-croc, and one of the earliest Crocodylomorphs (the group of crocodilians and their closest relatives). 

(Without Feathers) by Nobu Tamura, CC BY-SA 4.0

It being the Triassic, this wasn’t an environment free of non-reptiles! Temnospondyls – large carnivorous amphibians – were crawling about; as were a variety of Synapsids. Small, carnivorous dog-shaped cynodonts like Chiniquodon would have directly competed with the local dinosaurs; they even grew to be quite large and fast, like in Diegocanis and Ecteninion. They also came in large, bulky herbivorous forms, like Exaeretodon. Dicynodonts were present too, with their strange pig-like appearance: Ischigualastia was a common synapsid on the floodplains of Pisanosaurus’ home. In short, Pisanosaurus was surrounded with a cast of characters showcasing some – but certainly not all – of the weirdness that the Triassic  had to offer. 

Other: What Is Pisanosaurus? Back in the day, Pisanosaurus was a famous creature for being one of the earliest “Ornithischian” dinosaurs – one of two major groups of dinosaurs, famous for including such later iconic members as Stegosaurus and Triceratops. In fact, for the longest time, Pisanosaurus was… the only Ornithischian known from the Triassic. This is odd, to say the least – there are dozens of Triassic dinosaurs known, they’re just all from the other group, the Saurischians (containing such iconic later forms as Apatosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and… all birds). So, for the longest time, Pisanosaurus stood as a focal point of dinosaur research – an important piece of the puzzle of the origin of this elusive, but important group. 

By Nix

Except it isn’t an Ornithischian. Lately, studies have shown time and time again that Pisanosaurus actually more closely resembles the Silesaurids – a group of almost dinosaurs that were quadrupedal, active herbivores living around the world at the time of the Triassic, before going extinct at the end-Triassic extinction. This would make its appearance much different than what a “basal Ornithischian” would suggest – and, of course, the fact that Pisanosaurus is known from only a single fragmented skeleton does not make solving this problem much easier. Weirdly enough, there are some hypotheses which suggest that Silesaurids are… the earliest Ornithischians, (as per Pisanosaurus having an open hip-socket), representing a weird side-branch of the group from the Triassic. As this hypothesis gains traction, it may become increasingly true that Pisanosaurus was a Silesaurid – it was just also an early Ornithischian. Only time will tell in the solving of this mystery – for now, we must wait for more evidence. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources Under the Cut 

Heterorhea dabbenei

By José Carlos Cortés

Etymology: Different Rhea 

First Described By: Rovereto, 1914 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Palaeognathae, Notopalaeognathae, Rheiformes, Rheidae 

Status: Extinct 

Time and Place: About 4 million years ago, in the Zanclean of the Pliocene 

Heterorhea is known from the Monte Hermoso Formation of Buenos Aires, Argentina 

Physical Description: Heterorhea is only known from some isolated foot bones which were very similar to those of the modern Rhea, but in general shorter and wider. This indicates that, if Heterorhea was indeed a Rhea (see below), it would have been similar to the living Rhea but a little thicker in general proportion. This is, of course, conjecture; but it’s the best one we’ve got, as the original fossil of this animal is lost. Like living Rheas, it probably would have been a shaggy, flightless dinosaur; with a long neck, thick legs, and small pointed beak. 

Diet: Heterorhea was probably a vegetation, feeding on broad-leafed plants, fruits, seeds, and roots. 

Behavior: Heterorhea probably behaved at least somewhat similar to living Rheas, fairly silent birds forming large flocks fleeing in zig-zag motions. They would probably make calls during the mating season, making somewhat loud calls in mating displays and then making soft sounds to chicks when laid. They were also probably polygamous. Other than that, though, we can’t really make a lot of statements about Heterorhea behavior. 

Ecosystem: Heterorhea lived in a wet, lush grassland environment, which would occasionally flood with extensive amounts of water and mud based on the turn of the seasons. This was before the onset of the Ice Age, so it was during a time of somewhat warmer climate than what the later Rheas would face. Here, Heterorhea lived alongside many other animals – a variety of frogs, Ungulates, rodents and rabbits, Toxodonts, Macraucheniids, armadillo relatives, anteaters, Glyptodonts, Thylacosmilus, Racoons, opossums, and so many other mammals. As for contemporary dinosaurs, there were a variety of ducks, the other rhea Hinasuri, Tinamus like Nothura and Eudromia, and – of course – birds of prey like seriemas, condors, and the terror bird Mesembriornis. The latter would, of course, have been a major source of danger for Heterorhea. 

Other: Heterorhea is, sadly, lost; this means we can’t actually compare the fossil of this dinosaur with other birds known from the region. Thus, though it was originally called a rhea, we can’t be certain that is what it is – since that assignment came before the age of phylogenetics and more objective classification. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources Under the Cut 

Herpetotheres cachinnans

By Ken Erickson, in the Public Domain

Etymology: Reptile Hunter 

First Described By: Vieillot, 1817 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Neoaves, Inopinaves, Telluraves, Australaves, Eufalconimorphae, Falconiformes, Falconidae, Falconinae 

Status: Extant, Least Concern 

Time and Place: Since 10,000 years ago, in the Holocene of the Quaternary 

The Laughing Falcon is known from Central and South America, in the Tropical regions 

Physical Description: The Laughing Falcon is an odd bird of prey, with distinctive markings and a fluffy head to make it stand out from others in the Falcon group! Ranging between 45 and 53  centimeters, the females usually weigh more than the males, and they have wingspans of up to 91 centimeters in length. They wings are short and round-tipped, and they have long distinctive tails. They have large heads, with fluffy tops to the heads. The tops are white, and the necks are white, but they have a dark brown patch around the eye. Their beaks are small and yellow, with black tips. They have dark-brown backs and wings, and white bellies; their tails are dark brown with white patches. They also have small feet for birds of prey. 

By Allan Sobral, CC BY-SA 4.0

Diet: Laughing Falcons feed primarily on snakes, including very large venomous ones – even rattlesnakes! They will also supplement their diet with lizards, snakes, fish, and birds. 

By Andreas Trepte, CC BY-SA 4.0

Behavior: This is a very slow falcon, mainly perching noticeably in trees where they will search the ground carefully for sources of food. It will also move around the branches with slow, cautious, tiny steps. They will then fly very quickly down to the prey. Other than that they fly slowly, and rarely soar through the air. They also don’t hunt other birds, so they’re quite peaceful by falcon standards. It will pounce on its prey from flight and bite it just behind the head, then carrying it back to the perch to eat in its claws like an osprey, and then tears it to pieces. This method often beheads the snakes prior to consumption, especially when given to young. 

By Félix Uribe, CC BY-SA 2.0

Laughing Falcons have extremely distinctive calls, hence their names – in fact, the cries are so weird that natives to the area will call the bird evil (though, of course, it is anything but). It makes long, far-carrying “wah wah” calls that start out bubbly and increase in pitch. Mated pairs will often create loud duets together at dawn and dusk near the nest. They will make soft laughs and “Ha has” as well, and the chicks also make little laughing sounds! 

by Bernard DuPont, CC BY-SA 2.0

These birds will breed in rock crevices, tree cavities, and the abandoned nests of other birds of prey; they don’t really gather nesting material, but just use the space and a little bit of vegetation to keep the eggs nestled. They usually lay one egg, which is incubated by the female for a month and a half, while the male brings food and keeps watch. Mating and breeding can occur any time of the year, with different populations starting at different times. The chicks are small and covered in brown fluff; they’re fed by both parents, though mostly by the mother, for two months. For up to a year after leaving the nest, the young will stay with the parents and not stray too far while getting used to life in the jungle. They have very large home ranges, but do not migrate beyond that range. 

Laughing Falcon by Francesco Veronesi, CC BY-SA 2.0

Ecosystem: Laughing Falcons are mainly known in tropical and subtropical rainforests, especially along forest edges and in more disturbed second-growth forest (rather than unbroken rainforest). They are also commonly found along rivers and in swamp forests. 

By Francesco Veronesi, CC BY-SA 2.0

Other: Laughing Falcons are not considered threatened with extinction at this time; they range from uncommon to common throughout their range (though there are some patches with more rarity) and – while some places have seen a decline, especially in response to deforestation – they seem to remain fairly common and stable in populations in most of their range. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources under the Cut 

Uropelia campestris

By Bernard Dupont, CC BY-SA 2.0

Etymology: Tailed Dove

First Described By: Bonaparte, 1855 

Classification: Dinosauromorpha, Dinosauriformes, Dracohors, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Eusaurischia, Theropoda, Neotheropoda, Averostra, Tetanurae, Orionides, Avetheropoda, Coelurosauria, Tyrannoraptora, Maniraptoromorpha, Maniraptoriformes, Maniraptora, Pennaraptora, Paraves, Eumaniraptora, Averaptora, Avialae, Euavialae, Avebrevicauda, Pygostaylia, Ornithothoraces, Euornithes, Ornithuromorpha, Ornithurae, Neornithes, Neognathae, Neoaves, Columbaves, Columbimorphae, Columbiformes, Columbidae, 

Status: Extant, Least Concern 

Time and Place: Within the last 10,000 years, in the Holocene of the Quaternary 

The Long-Tailed Ground-Dove is mainly found in the Amazon basin 

Physical Description: These doves are distinctive for exactly what their name would suggest – they have long tails for pigeons! Ranging between 15 and 18 centimeters in length, they are brown on top with darker brown tails and wing-tips, with black patches on the wings. Their heads are grey, with dark grey beaks. Their undersides are light brown and their rumps are white. Interestingly, they also have yellow scales – a yellow ring around their eyes, and their feet are yellow. The females tend to be paler than the males. The juveniles tend on the duller side. They are distinguished from other doves due to that long tail and the yellow color of their feet. 

Diet: This Ground-Dove mainly feeds on ground seeds. 

Behavior: These doves will group up together near the edges of woodlands and on the ground in grassier habitats, usually in smaller groups of three to five birds. They’ll peck around on the ground looking for sources of food together, and give high-pitched wha-oop calls when distressed or trying to keep the group together. They tend to not migrate, but stay in one region throughout the year; their breeding habits are poorly known, though they probably start matings in the dry season. 

By Bernard Dupont, CC BY-SA 2.0

Ecosystem: These doves are found primarily in seasonally wet grasslands, savannas and on forest edges. They avoid denser vegetations or humid regions, opting for more scrubland habitats. 

Other: Long-Tailed Ground Doves aren’t threatened with extinction; they’re fairly common, but not the most common doves in the Amazon, especially during the dry season. They are found in other locations such as the Poconé region. Habitat destruction, however, is a major threat again this bird, especially today. 

~ By Meig Dickson

Sources under the Cut